On Emotions
Emotions and morality
Department of Philosophy, University of Haifa
The Journal of Value Inquiry 0: 1-l8 1997. (g) 1997 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
Emotions and morality
The role of emotions in the moral domain is controversial Two central features of emotions are particularly problematic for the integration of emotions into the moral domain: (1) the nondeliberate nature of emotions, and (2) the partial nature of emotions. The nondeliberate nature has been claimed to contradict the possibility of moral responsibility, and the partial nature of emotions has been perceived to be incompatible with.the impartial nature of morality Although admitting the presence of these features, I claim that emotions are very important in morality. I argue that we have some responsibility over our emotions and that emotions have both instrumental and intrinsic moral value.
1. The nondeliberate and partial nature of emotions
Deliberate evaluations involve conscious rational processes, whereas nondeliberate evaluations are more elementary spontaneous responses. The two types of evaluations may clash. Thus, we sometimes persist in being afraid when our conscious and deliberate judgment reveals that we are in no peril. We may explain such cases by assuming that certain nondeliberate evaluations become habitual to a degree where no deliberation can change them. This corresponds to situations in which deliberate thinking, or knowledge acquired by such thinking, fails to influence illusory perceptual contents. Spontaneous evaluations are similar to perceptual discriminations in being immediate, meaningful responses. They entail no deliberate mediating processes, merely appearing as if they were products of such processes. Spontaneous evaluations are either the result of evolution or of personal development. In both cases they reflect certain structures of our personality. They are ready-made mechanisms of appraisal. Since the evaluative patterns are part of our psychological constitution, we do not need time to create them; we just need the right circumstances to activate them.
Complex deliberate evaluations are more recent on the evolutionary tree: they entail conscious deliberation, characteristic mostly of human beings. The presence of emotions in some higher animals and the existence of conflicts between emotional evaluations and deliberate thinking indicate that at least some emotions involve spontaneous rather than deliberate evaluations The question is whether typical emotions are not deliberate. A key consideration in this respect is that emotions are usually generated when the agent confronts a sudden and significantchange.2 in lightofthe sudden generation of emotions, it is reasonable to suppose that they involve spontaneous evaluations which do not require much time. If emotions are typically immediate responses to changing situations, they probably result from the activation of evaluative patterns or schemes which do not require a lengthy process of deliberation. This, however, does not imply that deliberate thinking has no role in the generation of emotions. We may think about death and become frightened, or think about our mates and become jealous. Similarly, we may decide not to curb our anger but rather to intensify it. In such cases, deliberate thinking brings us closer to the conditions under which evaluative patterns are spontaneously activated. Deliberate thinking may be the immediate Cause for the activation of an evaluative pattern, hut the emotional evaluation itself is typically nondeliberate.
I turn now to discuss the second basic feature of emotions which poses problems for the integration of emotions in the moral domain, namely, their partial nature.
Emotions are partial in two basic senses: they are focused on a narrow area, as on one or very few objects, they, as well, express personal and interested perspectives. Emotions involve evaluations made by an interested agent from a specific and partial perspective. Emotions direct and color our attention: they limit what can attract and hold our attention; they make us preoccupied with some things and oblivious to others. Emotions draw on a personal and interested perspective. They are not detached theoretical states; they address a practical concem, often personal, associated with readiness to act. Not everyone and not everything is of emotional significance to us. We usually cannot assume an emotional state toward someone utterly unrelated to us. Emotions require resources of time and attention. Since these resources are finite, emotions must bc partial and discnminative.
The partiality of emotions is clearly demonstrated by their intentional com-ponents, namely, cognition, evaluation, and motivation. The cognitive field of emotions does not engage vaned and broad perspectives of our surroundings but a narrow and fragmentary perspective focused upon an emotional object and a subject-object relation. Thus, love limits a subject's range of interest, focusing almost exclusively on a beloved and his or her relationship with the subject. As the popular song has it, "Millions of people go by, but they all dis-appear from view 'cause I only have eyes for you." Similarly, the cognitive field of an envious person is limited to some, often petty aspects of an envied person and to the subject's own inferionty. Because of the partiality of the cognitive field in emotions, it is often distorted. Aristotle compares emotions such as anger to hasty servants "who run out before they have heard the whole of what one says, and then muddle the order" and to dogs who "bark if there is but a knock at the door, before looking to see if it is a friend."3 The evaluative field of emotions is narrow owing to its highly polarized nature. In comparlson with other people, an emotional object is often characterized as either highly positive or highly negative. The motivational field is narrow in the sense that the desired activity is often clearly preferred to any altemative. In intense emotional states we are somewhat similar to children. Like children, our perspectives are highly partial and involved. Our immediate situations are all that interest us; no rational explanations concerning broader perspectives are relevant. Partiality is an important, not an incidental feature of emotions.
The spontaneous nature of emotions has been perceived to contradict the very nature of moral responsibility. And the discriminative, partial nature of emotions has been perceivedto be incompatible with the more egalitanan and impartial nature of moral principles.
2. Emotions and moral responsibilitv
The major problem concerning the relationship between emotions and moral responsibility concerns the allegedly necessary presence of a broad perspective involving intellectual deliberations in moral behavior for which we are responsible, The problem may be formulated as follows.
1 . Responsibility entails free choice; if we are forced to behave in a certain manner, we are not responsible for this behavior.
2. Free choice entails an intellectual deliberation in which alternatives are considered and the best one is chosen. Without such consideration we cannot clearly understand the possible altennatives and are not responsible for preferTing one of them.
3. Since intellectual deliberations are absent fiTom emotions, we cannot be responsible for our emotions.
Before facing this difficulty, it should be clear that we do impute responsibility to persons for their emotions. We praise and criticize people for their emotions . We speak of appropriate reasons for being afraid, or inappropnate grounds for hating someone. We often advise others to desist from some emotions as when wc say: "You have no reason to be angry." We may also urge them to adopt emotions with the injunction: "Love your neighbor - but not your neighbor's wife." The problem we face then is not whether wc impute responsibility to persons for their emotions, but how such imputation is possible and what kind of responsibility is imputed. Remarks such as "I couldn't help it, I was madly in love with hint." or "Ignore his action, he was overcome with anger," indicate that we often do not attribute full responsibility to agents having certain emotions or acting out of emotions. The major flaw of the argument denying our responsibility over our emotions is that it presupposes a too simplistic picture of responsibility and emotions.
Responsibility may be described as having two major aspects: causality and blameworthiness. In light of causality, P is causally responsible for X if P is the cause for X. Thus, if P hands over a glass containing poison to X and consequently X dies, then although P is causally responsible for X's death, P is not to be blamed for this death if he did not know that the glass contained poison. The central sense of moral responsibility is that of blameworthiness. It can be divided into direct and indirect responsibility.
Paradigmatic cases of direct responsibility encompass doing or having at will X; the ability to avoid X; and thc ability to foresee the consequences of X. Thcse factors are important in describing the ideal situation for complete and direct personal responsibility. It is hard to sce how we can be directly responsible for som eth i ng that we were forced to do, we were not able to avoid, and whose consequences we could not predict. However, the idcal situation in which the three factors are fully present is rare. There are different degrees of these factors and it is probably impossible to have the highest degree. Nevertheless, we often assign direct personal responsibility even if the ideal situation is not fully present.4
Personal responsibility is also assigned when these three factors are clearly absent at the time we pertbmm the particular deed, but were present at some time in the past. Ilere we assign indirect responsibility. A drunken driver who causes a fatal accident and a drug-addicted person who steals in order to have money for drugs are examples of such cases. Indirect responsibility is assigned when we are responsible for cultivating the circumstances which give nse to the blameworthy deed or attitude.
In addition to indirect responsibility, legal and moral systems recognize partial responsibility. For example, provocation is understood as a partial defense of murder, since it reduces the agent's responsibility: a successful provocation plea involves a concession of partial responsibility but a denial of full responsibility S The personal responsibility we bear for our emotions is mainly indirect and partial.
The view denying our responsibility for emotions often encompasses not just a narrow notion of responsibility, but also a narrow picture of emotions. Emotions are reduced to fleeting, unreliable feelings over which we have little control and no responsibility. In the same way that we do not choose to have a toothache, and accordingly are not responsible for having it, it is assumed that we do not choose our emotions and are not responsible for them.
However, emotions are obviously more complex than fleeting feelings. The presence of intentional components such as cognition, evaluation, and moti vation enable us to impute responsibility for emotions and consequently to criticize or praise them. Indeed. emotions may be criticized or praised with regard to their three intentional components: the cognition ofthe situation may be flawed, false, or partial; the evaluation of the situation may be flawed or inappropnate, as when based on unfounded, vague, or immoral grounds; and the motivational components of desires and conduct may be self-defeating, socially destructive, only of short-temm value, or excessive. The whole emo tional attitude may also be regarded as appropriate or inappropriate in the given circumstances. Thus, we may cnticize ourselves for grieving too much or too little. Emotions may also be experienced as unsuitable with regard to their timing. It is disputable whether all emotions. in particular love and grief, can be criticized in light ofthe above considerations, but it is clear that we do War criticize or applaud people for having certain emotions.
Typically, we cannot immediately induce ourselves or others to assume a certain emotion. We do not invoke emotions by a deliberate, purposive decision. We cannot expenence, or stop exTtenencing, an emotion by simply deciding to do so. This, however, does not imply that there are no voluntary elements in experiencing emotions, or that we are incapable of regulating our emotions. Any regulation is, however, indirect. It can be done by changing ourselves or our environment. We can cultivate or habituate emotions by attaching more or less value to certain things. For example, attaching much importance to the boss's opinion may bring with it vulnerability to fear and disappointment. Since emotions express our profound values, cultivating values may also be the cultivation of emotions. We can also create or avoid the circumstances generating emotions. We may indirectly, but intentionally, make ourselves angry, sad, or envious by imagining that the circumstances typical of such emotions are indeed present. How we feel is less a matter of choice at the moment than a product of choice over time in which we habituate certain dispositions.
The view of emotional responsibility suggested here is basically Aristotelian. For Aristotle, virtuous people have the kind of character that leads them to experience emotion in a proper way, as well as leading them to act in a proper way. Similarly, to display vice is to depart from the proper response; it is to show either excess or deficiency in our emotional and behavioral responses. To shape our character properly is partially our responsibility, but is neither entirely nor directly under our control. As we are responsible for our character traits, so we are responsible for our emotions; the responsibility for our emotions may even be greater, since it is easier to manage them. Emotions and character traits are not raw impulses but socialized modes of response.
Like other types of habituation, emotional habituation can be more successful if started at an early age. Accordingly, we have responsibility in educating our offspring to generate the proper emotions in the proper circumstances. We teach our children "not just to avoid fire but to fear it, not just to consort with others but love them, not just to repair wrongdoing but to suffer remorse and shame for its execution.” Habituating emotional dispositions is also possible with adults, but it is more difficult and limited.
Our responsibility for our emotions is different from our responsibility for our rational, calculated actions. Whereas a fully explicit reason for a rational action entails a positive evaluation of the action itself, a reason for an emotion does not entail a positive evaluation of the emotion itself By virtue of its causal structure alone, we can expect rational actions to be judged as good or bad. This does not hold for emotions, insofar as they are not generated by rational processes. Accordingly, whereas we are answerable for nomms concerning our rational actions, we are not answerable in a similar manner for norms constituting our emotions.
We are not punished for our emotions as we are punished for our rational actions. There are hardly any legal sanctions against having certain emotions. Nonlegal punishment for having emotions are more common. Thus, we may not want to live with someone who is jealous or angers easily. This sort of punishment is indirect in the sense that it is not a localized response to a particular emotion, but one factor in the negative assessment of a whole person. It is then often the case that although people are perceived to be somehow responsible for their emotions, they are hardly punished for having them. A major reason for this is the mere indirect and partial control over emotions. Our responsibility for our emotions is not expressed in the particular activation of our emotional response, but in the creation of the mechanism underlying the response, and in not preventing the circumstances responsible for the generation of the emotional response. The view defended here, which imputes a certain type and degree of responsibility for our emotions, avoids two extreme positions held by several philosophers: emotions are always manifestations of freedom, and people can never be responsible for their emotions.
After indicating the possibility of moral responsibility in the emotional domain, we are in a position to examine the second problem concerning the relevancy of emotions to the moral domain: the apparent incompatibility of the partial nature of emotions with the impartial nature of moral principles.
3. The role of emotions in the moral domain
In order to show that emotions are morally valuable we must first indicate how the discriminatory, partial nature of emotions can be compatible with the more egalitarian and impartial nature of moral principles. Those who consider this difficulty to be unresolvable believe that emotions impede moral behavior. The functional value of emotions does not necessarily imply moral value as well. it can be argued that although emotions have practical value in terms of leading a more comfortable life, they have nothing to do with leading a more moral life. The difference between practical and moral values is clearly expressed in uses of the phrase "the prosperity of the wicked and the suffering of the righteous."
The moral value of emotions may be established by showing that partial emotional Concern is not so egoistic, as it often addresses the well-being of others too, and that it is extremely valuable in some moral circumstances.
The inadequacy of identifying emotional, personal Concern with immoral, egoistic concern is evident from the fact that helping other people may be as emotionally exciting as if we were gaining something for ourselves; similarly, hurting others may be as emotionally distressing as if we were being hurt ourselves. Positive emotional states usually increase inclinations toward helping. The reverse direction is also common: helping other people may increase our happiness, and perceiving injustice can provoke negative emotions which may lead to the elimination of the injustice. We may enjoy greater happiness from the good fbrtune we have procured for others than from our own. If benevolence is as essential to our constitution as personal gratification, then helping others may be an important constituent of our happiness.
Even if we grant that emotional, personal concenn should not be identified with immoral, egoistic concern, it can be still argued that benevolent emotional concern, whenever it appears, is quite limited in nature and mainly refers to those who are close to us. indicating the importance of emotions in morality should show that the partial, discriminative perspective so typical of emotions is valuable in many moral circumstances. These circumstances can be divided into those in which the partial perspective has instrumental moral value as a means for achieving positive moral consequences, and those in which the partial perspective has Intrinsic value as something valuable in itself.
Emotions which in themselves can be regarded as morally negative, may have instrumental moral value in the sense that they may lead to positive moral consequences. Jealousy is morally valuable in protecting unique relationships; envy may encourage improvement of our situation and that of other people; and anger may be useful in maintaining our values and self-respect. it is often the case that pursuing our own egoistic happiness may increase the happiness of other people as well. Adam Smith's view of economic benefits is similar: by pursuing our own private economic benefits, we contribute to the well-being of other people. Only excessive intensity of negative emotions is morally harmful; moderate fbnms of negative emotions are typically morally beneficial since they prevent indifferent attitudes toward others. Society v. u id be less humane if we were not immediately irritated by the presence of evil, or ashamed of our misdeeds.
Another instrumental advantage of negative moral emotions is their necessary coupling with positive moral emotions. Emotions express our sensitivity to what is going on around us. Elimination of negative moral emotions would require eliminating our sensitivity, and hence, also eliminating positive moral emotions. Elimination of the capacity of jealousy and pleasure-in-the-misfortune-of others would require elimination of love and happiness-for-the-fortune- of-others. The elimination of the capacity of anger and shame would require the elimination of gratitude and pride.
The coupling of negative and positive emotions in the moral domain or elsewhere is compatible with the view which assumes that an emotional state tends to generate another emotional state with the opposite sign. Thus, interruption of a pleasurable sexual expenence tends to create acute disappointment and irritation before a return to a neutral state. This coupling is also compatible with the common sense idea that we cannot have emotional highs without exposing ourselves to emotional lows. It also fits in with the Buddhist notion that the proper object of character planning is to get rid of all emotions, not just the unpleasant ones, since that is not feasible.
Generally, when we describe someone as emotional we refer, among other things, to the great sensitivity of the person: emotional reactions are easily invoked in the person. Indeed, for many emotions too great sensitivity leads to more extreme stands in multiple directions.
The great personal involvement of an emotional relationship has not merely advantages, but nsks as well. Those who are close to us can easily hurt us, as the popular song puts it: "You always hurt the one you love." Telling our secrets to someone may establish a friendship relationship, but it also exposes our vulnerability.l5 Some people actually avoid having fnellships for this reason. I once lived in an apartment building of low-income families. Being acquainted with my new neighbors was mostly a sad experience, as most of them had very difficult economic and social situations. I noticed that members of one family on my floor avoided making social contacts; later on l realized that they did that in order to avoid being exposed to the sad emotional experiences associated with these families.
The choice we face is not that of having positive emotions or a mix of positive and negative emotions, but rather that of having close emotional tics, or living in an isolated environment. Whereas having close emotional ties includes many emotional benefits and risks, living in isolation has few. Nancy Sherman rightly argues that by letting emotions play an important role in our lives, we assent to being passive in a certain sense; we give up control in order to be able to live emotionally. Yet, this is precisely what our friends may value in our relationships with them that we show willingness to be emotionally drawn, to be vulnerable to emotional losses and gains resulting from our close relationships with them.
So far I have indicated the instrumental moral value of emotions: they are a valuable means for leading a sensitive and moral life. I turn now to the more crucial moral value of emotions: their intrinsic value.
The intrinsic value of emotions is expressed in the fact that from a moral viewpoint, we care not only about how people act, but also about how they feel. This is so since emotions are genuine expressions of our basic attitudes and enduring values. When we really value something, our evaluation is often accompanied by a certain emotion. Holding a certain value emotionally is necessary for adopting that value as central to us. 17 Accordingly, an important advantage of incorporating emotions into the moral domain is the greater role of sincerity in our behavior. A system based on intellectual calculations can more successfully hide our real attitudes. Children, whose behavior is based more on spontaneous emotional evaluations, are more sincere than adults. Knowing how to hide our emotions is a personal discovery. Teaching children good manners is teaching them, among other things, to hide their real emotions. At least in this sense politicians are well educated.
Although emotions express our most profound values, it is easy to evoke them. We do not need a profound argument to generate emotions; on the contrary, very superfficial matters easily induce emotional reactions. Because of their depth, emotional values are comprehensive and relate to many events in our life.
Due to the profound and sincere nature of emotional behavior, its value is particularly important in our relationships with those who are close to us. our behavior toward our friends and family is less restrained and more sincere; for instance, we can fall asleep while watching TV together, expressing more freely our opinion, and be less careful in our effort not to insult other people. Unlike emotions, good manners often express superficial attitudes which are more typical of our behavior toward strangers. Take, for example, the following response of Miss Manners to a question by a professional woman in business who is wondering about the proper way for a man to shake a woman's hand: "Gentlemen were taught to shake ladies' hands lightly because ladies, but not gentlemen, often wear diamond rings on their right hands.... Other reasons for light shaking include arthritis, sweaty palms, and a hand frozen onto a cocktail glass." In light of their superficial nature, good manners can be deceptive in so far as they do not necessarily express our genuine profound attitude .
The profound nature of emotions and their natural emergence toward those who are close to us is related to their central moral characterization With regard to our intimates, partial emotional treatment is morally required and justified. We ought to treat our intimates with special emotional preference. Stephen Toulmin argues that in dealing with our families, intimates, and immediate neighbors or associates. "we both expect to - and are expected to —make allowances for their individual personalities and tastes, and we do our best to time our actions according to our perception of their current moods and plans.''
General moral rules cannot colt or the whole range of activities and attitudes required for the close and special relationships. As Anatole France remarks, the law, in its majestic equality, forbids all men to sleep under bridges, to beg in the streets, and to steal bread the rich as well as the poor General moral rules are especially valuable in our behavior toward strangers.
Along similar lines, Henry Sidgwick justifies special care toward friends insofar as we are psychologically so constituted that we are capable of affection for only a few other persons; furthermore, most of us are not in a position to do much good to more than a very small number of persons. Calculated, impartial behavior is often taken to indicate the lack of an intimate, close relationship. As Grunebaum suggests, "once friends begin to keep a credit-debit accounting of their relationship (making sure that they are not giving more than they receive or that they have not incurred too great a debt of gratitude), the beginning of the end of the fnendship is close at hand."20 Being moral is not necessarily being alienated; abiding by morality need not alienate us from the particular commitments that make life worthwhile. The personal emotional perspective addresses, among other things, the concern for the well-being of others. The personal element should not be excluded from morality; it should, however, be molded in such a way that considerations about the well-being of others are not excluded either 21 Similarly, happiness cannot be achieved by merely comparing ourselves to others. Our personal constitution should be taken into account. However, happiness cannot be achieved by ignoring others. Morality and happiness combines personal and social concems.
The morality of canng suggested by some feminists attempts to incorporate personal concerns typical of the emotional domain into the general moral domain. In this approach, the particularized self is of no lesser moral significance than the abstract general self assumed by some impartialist approaches to morality; sensitivity to particular differences, care and concern for individual persons are as central to morality as general principles. The feminist struggle carries some of its supporters to the extreme position denying any real gender differences. Such a denial undermines the very foundations upon which a morality of canug is based: the emotional and moral significance of individual differences. Radical egalitarianism cannot be integrated into the emotional domain, as it neglects individual differences which are so essential in emotions. Such differences should not harm certain individuals. but they will give nse to different emotions toward different individuals. Legislation and contracts may reduce the nsk of harmful discrimination in our behavior toward various individuals. but they cannot replace care and individualistic emotional attitudes. Whereas in personal relationships care is the essential feature, more distant relationships are based on contract. We should avoid the tendency, prevailing in mode m society. to base all relationships on formal contracts.
The distinction between intimates and strangers is obviously not clear-cut. In addition to personal relationships toward our intimates, and nonpersonal relationships toward strangers, there are other types of relationships in between. Thus, although my relationship with my personal physician for the last ten years is not as personal as my relationship with my children, it is not as remote as a relationship to a complete stranger. Such a relationship may be temmed quasi-personal relationship. Moreover, there are circumstances in which partial emotional attitudes should be applied to strangers, and impartial attitudes to our intimates. Some situations, such as those in which a stranger suffers a great mistbrtune, call for our compassion. Because of the huge resources demanded by compassion, such an attitude cannot be applied to more than a few strangers. In the same way that a partial emotional attitude is sometimes required in our attitude toward strangers, the attitude toward our intimates should sometimes be impartial and non-emotional. The circumstances are present when partial behavior toward our intimates may hurt bas ic rights of strangers. Thus, when serving as judges, referees, or teachers, we should not favor our children over strangers. Since doing that is hard, it is preferable to try to avoid such circumstances in the first place.
The personal, special care typical of emotional attitudes is by nature limited; it cannot be directed toward everyone. The moral ideal may be that of enlarging the circle of people enjoying our personal emotional care. Martha Nussbaum describes the following Stoic metaphor of moral development. Imagine that each of us lives in a set of concentric circles, the nearest being our own body, the furthest being the entire universe of human beings. The task of moral development is to move the circles progressively closer to the center, so that our parents become like ourselves, our other relatives like our parents, and strangers like relatives. This metaphor is apt for describing our ideal moral development, as long as it is remembered that the process of drawing the circles closer to the center can never be completed and should not result in their elimination Theyexpressthevery foundations of ouremotional structure Our emotions will always be more intense toward people included in the closest circle. Another task for moral development is realizing the inevitable presence of such circles and, accordingly, our partial emotional perspectives. One way to deal with the shortcomings of this partiality is to be acquainted with many such perspectives. Leaming to appreciate the diversity of partial human perspectives is crucial for giving our own perspective its proportionate weight.
Another reason for the intrinsic moral value of emotions is that they serve as a kind of moral compass. In Death In the Afternoon, Emest Hcmingway argues: "What is moral is what you feel good after and what is immoral is what you feel bad after." Emotions are often moral barriers for many types of immoral behavior. Some of the most horrible cnmes have been committed on the basis of cool intellectual calculation. What sometimes prevents a person from committing a cnme is emotional resistance. In one trial of white-collar workers in the United States, forty-five individuals were convicted of secretly fixing consumer prices for electricity. One senior executive conceded in the trial that in retrospect, he seemed to "intellectually believe" that what he was doing was wrong, but he avoided emotional recognition and heartfelt conviction about his wrongdoing.
Sometimes we must violate one moral duty in order to fulfill another, as in cases of dirty hands, in which an agent must ham in order to help in these situations, our moral character is expressed in the negative emotional experiences, like sadness and regret, that are associated with them. Our moral strength is often measured by the types of emotional resistance we have against wrongdoing. A person who exclusively behaves in accordance with the intellectual system may easily become indifferent to other people, since emotions express sensitivity toward other people. Moral behavior comes harder for people who lack feelings and emotions. Such people cannot have any feeling toward their children or others; they have to convince themselves or remind themselves to behave morally as they cannot do so out of compassion or friendship.
I believe that emotions have three basic evolutionary functions: an initial indication of the proper direction in which to respond; a quick mobilization of resources, and a means of social communication. Emotions function within individuals to indicate and regulate prionties, and between individuals to communicate intentions Since emotions are generated when we perceive a significant change in our situation, their purposes must be related to our ability to function in the circumstances. This is clearly expressed in the first two functions. The indicative function is required for giving us an initial direction in the uncertain novel circumstances we are facing. The mobilizing
function of emotions is to regulate the locus of investment in the sense of allocating resources away from situations where they would be wasted, and toward those urgent circumstances where investment will yield a significant payoff. The communicative function is that of revealing our evaluative stand and accordingly eliciting aid from others while insisting upon social positions. All functions are particularly important when urgency is in evidence.
In light of these general functions, we may describe three moral functions of emotions:
1. Emotions have an epistemic role of initially indicating moral salience and hence the general moral response. Emotional sensitivity helps us to distinguish the moral features of a given situation, and as such serves as an initial moral guide.
2 Emotions have a motivating role of supporting moral behavior and opposing immoral behavior. In accordance with their general mobilizing role, emotions help us to mobilize the resources needed for moral behavior, which is often not the most convenient course of action.
3. Emotions have a communicative role of revealing our moral values to others and to ourselves. Since emotions express our profound values, emotional experiences can reveal these values. Taking care of another person with sympathy and compassion can reveal our evaluation of the person to ourselves and to the person himself Sometimes we do not know how much we care for someone until emotions such as jealousy, fear, or compassion are generated.
4. Combining the emotional and intellectual perspectives
Emotional and moral attitudes are not contradictory. We can have close emotional ties with our intimates and still exhibit moral behave ior toward strangers. There may be cases in which the two attitudes clash, but the conflict is not inherently unresolvable. Take, for example, loyalty whose diverse types to our family, friends, community, and nation, usually involve some conflict between a partial emotional state and a more general and impartial moral attitude. Thus, patriotism involves a partial preference for the well-being of our country, which may be in conflict with a more universal concern for the well-being of all humanity. A morally acceptable form of patriotism, similar to the morally acceptable form of love or family loyalty, is feasibic. We really should care more about those near and dear to us than we care about strangers, but this should not be an exclusive concern that violates the rights of strangers. Our love should not be a submersion in someone else to the exclusion of worldly responsibilities. Likewise, our partial attitude toward our nation is morally recommended, so long as it is curbed by other moral principles.
Since particularistic emotional commitments readily lend themselves to excesses, they should be combined with a more general and impartial perspective for strengthening their moral value. Partial emotional attitudes and impartial moral attitudes represent complementary perspectives for the evaluation of human beings and their activities. A healthy human society needs all these perspectives. Utilizing such different perspectives is not only natural but morally recommendable.
A spontaneous emotional system and a deliberate intellectual system are both important for conducting moral life. The presence of several systems in the moral domain is as valuable as the presence of several powers in the political domain. For example, it is important to have legislative, executive, and judicial systems, as well as national and local powers, to balance each other in a modern democracy. The different systems oRen express opposing tendencies and competing interests. Yet, each system retains a somewhat independent voice and influence. It is as important for an individual as it is for a state to have potential sources of dissent from within. The possibility of internal conflict is sometimes a wellspring of vitality and sensitivity, and a check against one-sidedness and fanaticism. if our moral decisions were reached only through intellectual deliberations, then our decisions would be morally distorted insofar as they would be one-sided, neglecting important aspects of our lives . The presence of conflict between the intellectual and emotional systems is frequently useful from a moral viewpoint, since it indicates a moral predicament to which we should pay attention.
Neglecting the role of intellectual deliberations in morality is as dangerous as neglecting the role of emotions. Although emotions serve as our moral compass, the compass may in some cases provide inadequate directions. In oppressive societies, such as Nazi Germany, or many male-chauvinist societies, inappropriate emotions have been cultivated. There, the emotional compass becomes largely immoral, generating inappropriate emotions and requiring intellectual deliberations to reveal its deficiencies. An important task of intellectual deliberations in such societies is that of correcting the emotional compass. Otherwise, the intellectual objections will hardly be expressed in actual behavior, as they will not be absorbed into the basic evaluative system.
In addition to the emotional capacity shared by both animals and people, people also possess an intellectual capacity. It is implausible to suppose that it is not involved in determining our moral behavior If it were not, we would be like non-human animals. But, it would be morally dangerous to determine our moral behavior by refemng to the intellectual capacity alone. Some scholars argue that God acts in this way: in a cold and calculated manner, unfeelingly,
and only as reason directs. Contrary to animals and God, the moral behavior of people is detemmined by emotions and reason. Vir uous people should not attempt to imitate the behavior of animals or God by basing their actions on mere emotions or reason. They should behave in a way typical of human circumstances which combines emotions and reason. Combining emotions and reason is complex and difficult, and only virtuous people can accomplish it smoothly. Virtuous people are not angels; their advantage over most of us is that in their case, the combination of emotions and reason is not a source of conflict, but instead a valuable means to a moral and happy end.
While emotions should not be overlooked, their v eight should often bc limited. Virtuous people are not calm and unfeeling, but they are also not people led by passion. Their behavior is in accordance with the dictates of reason, but it is not generated by intellectual deliberations; it is nule-described behavior rather than nule-following behavior. The role of emotions in such behavior is crucial. As Plato suggests, a sound education consists of training people to find pleasure and pain in the nght objects. Similarly, for Aristotle the virtuous person is not only the one who acts virtuously, but the person who has the appropriate emotional dispositions and character traits while doing so. Not having the proper emotion is as significant as not acting in accord with it. The virtuous, good-tempered person is not only someone who acts angrily against the right person, to the nght degree, at the right time, for the nght purpose, and in the right way, but someone who also feels anger in these circumstances.32 in this sense, the actor Dustin Hoffman may be considered to be a virtuous person, since he claimed that after meeting his wife he felt no passion toward other women. There is no infidelity in the behavior and heart of such a true lover, since the emotions and values are not in conflict. Most other people are less fortunate, and overcoming such a conflict is a major step toward achieving happiness. This is obviously the case of Amencan presidents, such as John Kennedy, Bill Clinton, and even Jimmy Carter, who once admitted that although he was very religious, he had lusted in his heart.
An essential moral difference between virtuous people and ordinary people is in their sensitivity. Virtuous people are less sensitive to hnmoral temptations and are more sensitive to moral wrongdoing. They cannot be characterized merely by their insensitivity to sinful temptations; they should also be charactenzed by their sensitivity to the suffering of other people. In order to be a really virtuous person, it is not enough that Dustin Hoffman desires no woman other than his wife; he should also care for other women and men. On the opposite side, we may describe Bill Clinton as a kind person, since he has a very positive attitude toward every woman. Even if some womanizers are indeed kind in nature, I would not describe them as vir uous people, since they are not insensitive to certain temptations Dustin and Bill may be taken to represent partial and general sensitivity. Dustin is closer to the ideal of a virtuous person than Bill, since in close relationships, the partial perspective should be more dominant. Finding the right proportion between the partial and general types of sensitivity is not easy, as greater emotional sensitivity to one person may naturally lead to insensitivity toward other people. No wonder there are so few virtuous people these days.
The emotional sensitivity of virtuous people is accompanied by a more acute moral perception. Virtuous people can better perceive the moral features of vanous situations that they encounter in the same vein, people who are sensitive to tea can better perceive vanous features of tea. Similarly, it was found that anti-Semitic people can identify Jews better than other people. Moral perception in itself does not necessarily lead to moral behavior NVe can imagine a person who clearly perceives other people's suffering but is totally unmoved by it—the person simply does not care. Virtuous people do not only possess better moral perception, but also have the appropriate emotional sensitivity.
To sum up, I have discussed two major difficulties in assigning emotions a major role in morality: their nondeliberate nature seems to contradict moral responsibility and their partial nature seems to contradict the more general and egalitarian nature of morality. Conceming the first difficulty, I have argued that we do have some kind of responsibility over our emotions. Our responsibility stems from our indirect control over the circumstances generating emotions. The partial nature of emotions has been described as giving us a moral perspective in addition to an intellectualist perspective. In this sense, emotions enlarge our global perspective, thereby enabling us to conduct a more meaningful and moral life. Emotions are especially important in our relationships with those near and dear to us. In such circumstances, which constitute the bulk of our everyday behavior, partial emotional attitudes are not only possible but morally commendable. Sincerity and particular attention to specific needs, both typical of emotional behavior, are of cnucial importance Emotional attitudes are also a moral barrier against many comes. Emotional evaluations have emerged from a long process of evolutionary and personal moral development. Accordingly, they are morally significant in expressing some of our deepest value commitments and in providing basic guidelines for moral behavior. However, the crucial role of emotions in moral life does not imply their exclusivity; the intellectual capacity is important as well.
Notes
1 . A Ben-Ze'ev, The Perceptual system: A philosophical and psychological perspective (New York: Peter Lang, 1993).
2. A. Ben-Ze'ev, "Typical emotions,' in W. O'Donohue and R. Kitchener (eds.), Philosophy oJpyschology (London: Sage, 1996), pp. 228 243.
3. Nicomachean Ethics in The complete works of Artistotle: The revised Oxford translation. ed. J. Bames. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), 11149a, 26 29.
4. J. Oakley, Morality and the emotions ( London: Routledge, 1991), ch. 4.
5. J. Horder, Provocation and responsibility (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), pp. I—2.
6. See also W.R Alston, "Emotion and feeling," in P. Edwards (ed.), Encyclopedia oJphilosophy (New York: Macmillan, 1967), Vol. ill, pp. 479 486; E. Bedford, Emotions. Proceedings of the Artistotelian Society, 57 (1957), pp. 281—304; W. Lyons, Emotion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), pp. 6 8; and G. Pitcher, "Emotion," Mind, 74 (1965), pp. 326-345. Kant, who refers to emotions as simple feelings for which we are not responsible, indeed considers them to be irrelevant or even obstacles to responsible moral behavior. For criticism of Kant's view, see R Lauritzen, "Errors of an ill-reasoning reason: The disparagement of emotions in the moral life," The Journal oJ'Value Inquiry, 25 (1991), 5—21. Various places in Kant's writings may suggest that his view on the role of emotions in morality is more complex than a simple rejection of such a role; see N. Sherman, "The place of emotions in Kantian morality," in O. Flanagan and A.O Rorty (eds.), Identity character, andmorality(Cambridge: MIT, 1990).
7. See also A.R. Hochschild, "The economy of gratitude," in D.D. Franks and E.D. McCarthy (eds.), The sociology oJ'emotions (New York: JAI Press, 1989), ch. 4; and Lyons, op. cit.
8. N. Shemman, "Emotion," in W. Reich (ed.), Encyclopedia of Bioethics (New York: Macmillan, 1995), pp. 664 671.
9. Artistotle, op. Cite 1106b, 16-23; J. Horder, Provocation and responsibility (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), p. 44; and N. Sherman, "The role of emotions in Artistotelian virtue," Proceedings of the Boston area Colloquium in ancient philosophy, I X ( 1993), pp. I—33. The indirect nature of emotional regulation has been indicated by other philosophers as well. For example, Descartes argues that our passions "cannot be directly aroused or suppressed by the action of our will, but only indirectly through the representation of things which are usually joined with the passions we wish to have and opposed to the passions we wish to reject." Similarly, Spinoza claims: "An affect cannot be restrained or taken away except by an affect opposite to, and stronger than, the affect to be restrained."
10. R. Scruton, "Emotion, practical knowledge and common culture," in A. Rorty (ed.), Explaining emotions (Berkeley: University of Califomia Press, 1980), p. 525.
11. R. Gordon, The structure of emotions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp. 125-127.
12. See also J. Elster, "Sadder but wiser? Rationality and the emotions," Social Science Information, 24 (1985), pp. 375 406; P. Greenspan, Emotions and reasons (New York: Routledge, 1988), pp 10 and i 55; and E. Sankowski, "Responsibility of persons for their emotions," Canadian Journal of'Philosophy, 7 (1977), pp. 829, 840.
13. A. Ferguson, An essay on the history oJ'civil society (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1980), p. 53.
14. Along these lines, Ferguson argues: "As jealousy is often the most watchful guardian of chastity, so malice of often the quickest to spy the failings of our neighbour. . . the worst principles of our nature may be at the bottom of our pretended zeal for morality," op. cit., p. 36. See also A. Ben-Ze'ev, "Envy and inequality," Journal of Philosophy, 89 (1992), pp. 551-581.
15. A. Ben-Ze'ev, "You always hurt the one you love," The Journal of Value Inquirv, 27 (1993), pp. 487 495; and D. Tannen, You just don't understand (New York: Ba11antine Books, 1990), ch. 4.
16. Shemman, "The role of emotions in Aristotelian virtue," op. cit.
17. G.A. Hartz, "Desire and emotion in the virtue tradition," Philosophia, 20 (1990), pp. 145—165; and R.C. Solomon, The passions (New York: Doubleday, 1976).
18. J. Martin, Miss Manners' guide for the turn-of-the-Miliennium (New York: Fireside,1990).
19. S. Toulmin, "The tyranny of principles," The Hastings center report, December 1981; see also A. Ben-Ze'ev, "Emotional and moral evaluation," Metaphilosophy, 23 (1992), pp. 214-229.
20. J.O. Grunebaum, "Friendship, morality, and special obligation," American Philosophical Quarterly, 30 ( I 993), pp. 51 61; H. Sigwick, Methods of 'ethics (New York: Dover, 1966), p. 434; and R.C. Solomon, A passionfbr justice: Emotions and the origins oJ'the social contract (Reading: Addison-Wesley. 1990), p. 47.
21. L.A. Blum, Moral perception and particularity (New York: Cambridge University Press. 1994), ch. 3; I.P. Rallton, "Alienation, consequentialism and the demands of morality:' Philosophy and Public Affairs, 13 (1984), pp. 134 171; See also 1. Cottingham, "Ethics and impartiality," Philosophical Studies, 43 (1983), pp. 83-99; J. Cottingham, "Partiality, favouritism and morality' Philosophical Quarterly, 36 (1986), pp. 357—373.
22. It is interesting to note that sensitivity to the particular person is also part of Kant's moral ity which requires that we respect individuals in their own right as ends having intrinsic Value
23. M.C. Nussbaum, Upheavals of thought: A theory of'the emotions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming), ch. 6.
24. See also Nussbaum, Ibid.
25. M.W. Martin, SelJ:deception and morality (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1986), p. 65.
26. Sherman, "The place of emotions in Kantian morality," op. cit., pp. 152-153.
27. See also K. Oatley, Bestlaid schemes: The psychologyof emotions (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), p. 175.
28. See also N. Sherman, "Kant on sentimentalism and stoic apathy ' in H. Robinson (ed.), Proceedings of'the 81h international Kant world congress, Vol. I (Milwaukee: Marquette University Press, 1995), pp. 705-711.
29. R.E. Ewin, "Loyalty and virtues," Philosophical Quarterly, 42 (1992), pp. 403 419; S. Nathanson, "In defense of 'moderate patriotism'," Ethics, 99 (1989), pp. 535 552; I.P Railton, "Alienation, consequentialism and the demands of morality,"' Philosophy & Public Affairs, 13 (1984), 134-171.
30. R.M. Adams, "Involuntary sins," The Philosophical Review, 94 (1985), pp. 3-31.
31. This, for instance, is Maimonides' belief, and hence in his view, the virtuous person should imitate this behavior of God. See D.H. Frank, "Anger as a vice: A Maimonidean critique of Artistotle's ethics," history of Philosophy Quarterly, 7 (1990), pp. 269-281.
32. Frank, op. cit. pp. 269 281; Sherman, "The role of emotions in Aristotelian virtue," op. cit., pp. 1-33.
33. Blum, op. cit., ch. 3.
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